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R. T. RUSSELL

BBC BASIC (86) Manual



MID$

A string function which returns 'num' characters of the string starting from character 'start_posn'. If 'num' is not present or if there are insufficient characters in the string, then all the characters from 'start_posn' onwards are returned.
C$=MID$(A$,start_posn,num)
C$=MID$(A$,Z)
You can use this function to select any part of a string. For instance, if
name$="BBCBASIC(86)"
then
part$=MID$(name$,4,5)
would assign BASIC to 'part$'. If the last number is omitted or there are insufficient characters to the right of the specified position, MID$ returns with the right hand part of the string starting at the specified position. Thus,
part$=MID$(name$,9)
would assign (86) to 'part$'.

For example,

10 name$="BBCBASIC(86)"
20 FOR i=1 TO LEN(name$)
30   PRINT MID$(name$,i,10)
40 NEXT
would print
BBCBASIC(8
BCBASIC(86
CBASIC(86)
BASIC(86)
ASIC(86)
SIC(86)
IC(86)
C(86)
(86)
86)
6)
)

Syntax

<s-var>=MID$(<str>,<numeric>[,<numeric>])

Associated Keywords

LEFT$, RIGHT$, LEN, INSTR

MOD

A binary operation giving the signed remainder of the integer division.
X=A MOD B
MOD is defined such that,
A MOD B = A - ( A DIV B ) * B.
If you are doing integer division (DIV) of whole numbers it is often desirable to know the remainder. (A 'teach children to divide' program for instance.) For example, 23 divided by 3 is 7, remainder 2. Thus,
10 PRINT 23 DIV 3
20 PRINT 23 MOD 3
would print
         7
         2
You can use real numbers in these calculations, but they are truncated to their integer part before BBCBASIC(86) calculates the result. Thus,
10 PRINT 23.1 DIV 3.9
20 PRINT 23.1 MOD 3.9
would give exactly the same results as the previous example.

Syntax

<n-var>=<numeric> MOD <numeric>

Associated Keywords

DIV

MODE

MO.

The MODE (or VDU 22) command sets the screen display mode. The screen is cleared and all the graphics and text parameters (colours, origin, etc) are reset to their default values.

The following example sets the display mode to mode 3 (80x25 text only).

MODE 3
BBCBASIC(86) does not have a default display mode; it starts in whatever mode MS-DOS was using at the time BBCBASIC(86) was run.

Available Modes

The available display modes and the resolution of which they are capable are listed below. As described in the Drawing on The Screen sub-section, none of the PC display formats available with any of the display adapters offer identical resolution to the BBC Micro and complete compatibility is not possible. However, in order to make BBCBASIC(86) as compatible as possible with the BBC Micro, the number of basic modes has been kept at 8 and the original BBC Micro modes have been mapped on to the PC modes with the closest attribute match. As a consequence, a number of the modes have identical attributes.
Mode Graphics (pixels) Logical Colours Text (chars)
0640x2002 colour display80x25
1320x2004 colour display40x25
2Same as mode 1
3None16 colour text only80x25
4320x2004 colour display40x25
5Same as mode 4
6None16 colour text only40x25
7NoneMonochrome text only80x25
Viewdata emulation40x25
8640x20016 colour80x25
9320x20016 colour40x25
10Same as mode 9
11Same as mode 3
12Same as mode 9
13Same as mode 9
14Same as mode 6
15640x350monochrome display80x25
16640x35016 colour80x25 or
80x43
17Reserved for expansion.
18640x48016 colour80x30 or
80x60
This table indicates the number of logical colours available in each display mode. As described in the Graphics and Colours section, the number of physical colours available depends upon the display adapter fitted.

Modes 1, 2, 4 and 5 are identical except that, when using the NTSC composite video output, modes 4 and 5 cause the colour subcarrier to be suppressed.

Several display adapters with widely differing capabilities are available for the PC. Because of this difference in capabilities, the display modes available to BBCBASIC(86) depend upon the display adapter fitted to your computer.

Modes 8 to 15 have been mapped as closely as possible (as regards graphics resolution and number of text columns) onto CGA modes 0 to 7. This has been done to simplify conversion of software to use the EGA modes. You simply need to add 8 to the original CGA mode number.

You can automatically map the CGA modes 0 to 7 to the EGA modes 8 to 15 with the *EGA command. Normal operation may be restored by issuing the command *EGA OFF.

Graphics operations in the EGA modes are significantly slower than in the CGA modes. Since all EGA cards also support the CGA modes, you should use the CGA modes 0 to 7 unless you actually need EGA features (16 colours, for example).

Attempting to select a screen mode of which the hardware of the computer is not capable should give the 'Bad mode' error, although the screen may first be cleared. However, some computers may 'crash' if no EGA or VGA card is fitted and an attempt is made to select modes 8 to 18 (or modes 0 to 7 after *EGA). This is due to shortcomings of the BIOS fitted to some PC compatibles.

Syntax

MODE <numeric>

Associated Keywords

CLS, CLG

MOVE

A statement which moves the graphics cursor to an absolute position without drawing a line.
MOVE X,Y
MOVE 124,327
The MOVE statement is identical to PLOT 4.

Syntax

MOVE <numeric>,<numeric>

Associated Keywords

DRAW, MODE, GCOL, PLOT

NEW

A command which initialises the interpreter for a new program to be typed in. The old program may be recovered with the OLD command provided no new program lines have been typed in or deleted and no variables have been created.
NEW
This command effectively 'removes' a program from the computer's memory. In reality, the program is still there, but BBCBASIC(86) has been told to forget about it.

If you have made a mistake, you can recover your old program by typing OLD. However, this won't work if you have begun to enter a new program.

Syntax

NEW

Associated Keywords

OLD

NEXT

N.

The statement delimiting FOR...NEXT loops. NEXT takes an optional control variable.
NEXT
NEXT J
If the control variable is present then FOR....NEXT loops may be 'popped' automatically in an attempt to match the correct FOR statement (this should not be necessary). If a matching FOR statement cannot be found, a 'Can't match FOR' error will be reported.

Leaving out the control variable will make the program run quicker, but this is not to be encouraged.

See the keyword FOR for more details about the structure of FOR....NEXT loops.

Syntax

NEXT [<n-var>{,<n-var>}]

Associated Keywords

FOR, TO, STEP

NOT

This is a high priority unary operator (the same priority as unary -). It causes a bit-by-bit binary inversion of the numeric to its right. The numeric may be a constant, a variable, or a mathematical or boolean expression. Expressions must be enclosed in brackets.
A=NOT 3
flag=NOT flag
flag=NOT(A=B) 
NOT is most commonly used in an IF....THEN....ELSE statement to reverse the effect of the test.
IF NOT(rate>5 AND TIME<100) THEN .....
IF NOT flag THEN .....
BBCBASIC(86) does not have true boolean variables; it makes do with numeric variables. This can lead to confusion because the testable condition in an IF....THEN....ELSE statement is evaluated mathematically and can result in something other than -1 (TRUE) or 0 (FALSE).

When the test in an IF....THEN....ELSE is evaluated, FALSE=0 and anything else is considered to be TRUE. If you wish to use NOT to reverse the action of an IF statement it is important to ensure that the testable condition does actually evaluate to -1 for TRUE.

If the testable condition evaluates to 1, for example, the result of the test would be considered to be TRUE and the THEN part of the IF....THEN....ELSE statement would be carried out. However, using NOT in front of the testable condition would not reverse the action. NOT 1 evaluates to -2, which would also be considered to be TRUE.

Syntax

<n-var>=NOT<numeric>

Associated Keywords

None

OLD

A command which undoes the effect of NEW provided no lines have been typed in or deleted, and no variables have been created.
OLD
OLD works even if BBCBASIC(86) has been re-loaded and re-started from MS-DOS. However, it will only work if no other programs have been run and BBCBASIC(86) loads at the same address as before.

Syntax

OLD

Associated Keywords

NEW

ON

A statement controlling a multi-way switch. The line numbers in the list may be constants or calculated and the 'unwanted' ones are skipped without calculation. The ON statement is used in conjunction with four other key-words: GOTO, GOSUB, PROC and ERROR. (ON ERROR is explained separately.)
ON option GOTO 1000,2000,3000,4000
ON action GOSUB 100,3000,200,5000,30
ON choice PROC_add,PROC_find,PROC_delete
The ON statement alters the path through your program by transferring control to one of a selection of line numbers depending on the value of a variable. For example,
200 ON number GOTO 1000,2000,500,100
would send your program to line 1000 if 'number' was 1, to line 2000 if 'number' was 2, to line 500 if 'number' was 3 and to line 100 if 'number' was 4.

Exceptions may be trapped using the ELSE statement delimiter.

ON action GOTO 100,300,120 ELSE PRINT"Illegal"
If there is no statement after the ELSE, the program will 'drop through' to the following line if an exception occurs. In the two following examples, the program would drop through to the error handling part of the program if 'choice' or 'B-46' was less than one or more than 3.
ON choice PROC_add,PROC_find(a$),PROC_delete ELSE PRINT 
"Illegal Choice - Try again"

ON B-46 GOSUB 100,200,(C/200) ELSE PRINT "ERROR"
You can use ON...GOTO, ON...GOSUB, and ON...PROC to execute the appropriate part of your program as the result of a menu selection. The following skeleton example offers a menu with three choices.
 20 CLS
 30 PRINT "SELECT THE ACTION YOU WISH TO TAKE"
 40 PRINT "1 OPEN A NEW DATA FILE"
 50 PRINT "2 ADD DATA TO THE FILE"
 60 PRINT "3 CLOSE THE FILE AND END"''
 70 REPEAT
 80   INPUT TAB(10,20)"WHAT DO YOU WANT ? "choice
 90 UNTIL choice>0 AND choice<4
100 ON choice PROC_open,PROC_add,PROC_close ELSE
110 .....etc

Limitations

If a statement terminator (: or the token for ELSE) appears within the line, the interpreter assumes that the ON... statement is terminated. For example, you cannot pass a colon as a literal string parameter in an ON...PROC command. The program line
ON entry PROC_start,PROC_add(":"),PROC_end
would be interpreted as
ON entry PROC_start,PROC_add("
:"),PROC_end
and give rise to an interesting crop of error messages.

Syntax

ON <numeric> GOTO <l-num>{,<l-num>}
             [ELSE <stmt>{:<stmt>}]
ON <numeric> GOSUB <l-num>{,<l-num>}
             [ELSE <stmt>{:<stmt>}]
ON <numeric> PROC<name>[(<exp>{,<exp>})]
             {,PROC<name>[(<exp>{,<exp>})]}
             [ELSE <stmt>{:<stmt>}]

Associated Keywords

ON ERROR, ON ERROR LOCAL, GOTO, GOSUB, PROC

ON ERROR

A statement controlling error trapping. If an ON ERROR statement has been encountered, BBCBASIC(86) will transfer control to it (without taking any reporting action) when an error is detected. This allows error reporting/recovery to be controlled by the program. However, the program control stack is still cleared when the error is detected and it is not possible to RETURN to the point where the error occurred.

ON ERROR OFF returns the control of error handling to BBCBASIC(86).

ON ERROR PRINT"Suicide":END
ON ERROR GOTO 100
ON ERROR OFF
For example, the ON ERROR statement can be used to trap out the escape key to prevent a program being terminated at the wrong time by its accidental use.
50 ON ERROR IF ERR=17 THEN 70
60 PRINT:REPORT:PRINT " at line ";ERL:END
70 : etc.
Error handling is explained more fully in the General Information section.

Syntax

ON ERROR <stmt>{:<stmt>}
ON ERROR OFF

Associated Keywords

ON, ON ERROR LOCAL, GOTO, GOSUB, PROC

ON ERROR LOCAL

A statement controlling error trapping. If an ON ERROR LOCAL statement has been encountered, BBCBASIC(86) will transfer control to it (without taking any reporting action) when an error is detected. This allows error reporting/recovery to be controlled by the program.

Unlike the ON ERROR command, ON ERROR LOCAL prevents BBCBASIC(86) clearing the program stack. By using this command, you can trap errors within a FOR...NEXT or REPEAT...UNTIL loop or a subroutine, function or procedure without BBCBASIC(86) losing its place within the program structure.

ON ERROR OFF returns the control of error handling to BBCBASIC(86).

ON ERROR LOCAL PRINT"Suicide":END
ON ERROR LOCAL GOTO 100
ON ERROR OFF
The following example program will continue after the inevitable 'Division by zero' error in line 30.
10 FOR n=-5 TO 5
20   ON ERROR LOCAL PRINT "Infinity":GOTO 40
30   PRINT "The reciprocal of ";n;" is ";1/n
40 NEXT N
Error handling is explained more fully in the General Information section.

Syntax

ON ERROR LOCAL <stmt>{:<stmt>}
ON ERROR OFF

Associated Keywords

ON, ON ERROR, GOTO, GOSUB, PROC

OPENIN

OP.

A function which opens a file for reading and returns the file handle of the file. This number must be used in subsequent references to the file with BGET#, INPUT#, EXT#, PTR#, EOF# or CLOSE#.

A returned value of zero signifies that the specified file was not found on the disk.

OPENIN may also be used to open a channel from an input device, such as "AUX" (the auxiliary device, usually a serial port), "COM1" (the first serial port) or "COM2" (the second serial port). The serial port must first be initialised to the required mode of operation using the MS-DOS MODE command.

X=OPENIN "jim"
X=OPENIN A$
X=OPENIN (A$)
X=OPENIN ("FILE1")
X=OPENIN ("COM2")
The example below reads data from disk into an array. If the data file does not exist, an error message is printed and the program ends.
10 DIM posn(10),name$(10)
20 fnum=OPENIN "TOPTEN"
30 IF fnum=0 THEN PRINT "No TOPTEN data": END
40 FOR i=1 TO 10
50   INPUT#fnum,posn(i),name$(i)
60 NEXT
70 CLOSE#fnum

Syntax

<n-var>=OPENIN(<str>)

Associated Keywords

OPENOUT, OPENUP, CLOSE#, PTR#, PRINT#, INPUT#, BGET#, BPUT#, EOF#

OPENOUT

A function which opens a file for writing and returns the file handle of the file. This number must be used in subsequent references to the file with BPUT#, PRINT#, EXT#, PTR# or CLOSE#. If the specified file does not exist it is created. If the specified file already exists it is truncated to zero length.

A returned value of zero indicates that the specified file could not be created.

OPENOUT may also be used to open a channel to an output device, such as "PRN" (the system printer, usually a parallel port), "COM1" (the first serial port), "COM2" (the second serial port) or "LPT1" (the first parallel port). The parallel or serial port must first be initialised to the required mode of operation using the MS-DOS MODE command.

X=OPENOUT(A$)
X=OPENOUT("DATAFILE")
X=OPENOUT("LPT1")
You can also read from a file which has been opened using OPENOUT. This is of little use until you have written some data to it. However, once you have done so, you can move around the file using PTR# and read back previously written data.

Data is not written to the file at the time it is opened. Consequently, it is possible to successfully open a file on a full disk. Under these circumstances, a 'Disk full' error would be reported when you tried to write data to the file for the first time.

The example below writes the contents of two arrays (tables) to a file called 'TOPTEN.BBC'.

10 A=OPENOUT "TOPTEN"
20 FOR Z=1 TO 10
30   PRINT#A,N(Z),N$(Z)
40 NEXT
50 CLOSE#A
60 END

Syntax

<n-var>=OPENOUT(<str>)

Associated Keywords

OPENIN, OPENUP, CLOSE#, PTR#, PRINT#, INPUT#, BGET#, BPUT#, EOF#

OPENUP

A function which opens a disk data file for update (reading and writing) and returns the file handle of the file. This number must be used in subsequent references to the file with BGET#, BPUT#, INPUT#, PRINT#, EXT#, PTR#, EOF# or CLOSE#.

A returned value of zero signifies that the specified file was not found on the disk.

X=OPENUP "jim"
X=OPENUP A$
X=OPENUP (A$)
X=OPENUP ("FILE1")
See the random file examples (F-RAND?) in the BBCBASIC Disk Files section for examples of the use of OPENUP.

Syntax

<n-var>=OPENUP(<str>)

Associated Keywords

OPENIN, OPENOUT, CLOSE#, PTR#, PRINT#, INPUT#, BGET#, BPUT#, EOF#

OPT

An assembler pseudo operation controlling the method of assembly. (See the Assembler section for more details.) OPT is followed by an expression with the following meanings:

Code Assembled Starting at P%

 Value Action 
0 assembler errors suppressed; no listing.
1 assembler errors suppressed;listing.
2 assembler errors reported;no listing.
3 assembler errors reported;listing (default).

Code Assembled Starting at O%

 Value Action 
4 assembler errors suppressed; no listing.
5 assembler errors suppressed;listing.
6 assembler errors reported;no listing.
7 assembler errors reported;listing.
The possible assembler errors are:
Out of range - error code 40.
No such variable - error code 26.
Multiple label - error code 3.
Size needed - error code 2.

Syntax

OPT <numeric>

Associated Keywords

None

OR

The operation of bitwise integer logical OR between two items. The two operands are internally converted to 4 byte integers before the OR operation.
IF A=2 OR B=3 THEN 110
X=B OR 4
You can leave out the space between OR and a preceding constant, but it makes your programs difficult to read.

You can use OR as a logical operator or as a 'bit-by-bit' (bitwise) operator. The operands can be boolean (logical) or numeric.

Unfortunately, BBC BASIC does not have true boolean variables; it uses numeric variables and assigns the value 0 for FALSE and -1 for TRUE. This can lead to confusion at times. (See NOT for more details.)

In the example below, the operands are boolean (logical). In other words, the result of the tests (IF) A=2 and (IF) B=3 is either TRUE or FALSE. The result of this example will be TRUE if A=2 or B=3.

answer=(A=2 OR B=3)
The brackets are not necessary, they have been included to make the example easier to follow.

The last example, uses the OR in a similar fashion to the numeric operators (+, -, etc).

Suppose X was -20 in the following example,

A=X OR 11
the OR operation would be:
11111111 11111111 11111111 11101100
00000000 00000000 00000000 00001011
11111111 11111111 11111111 11101111  = -17

Syntax

<n-var>=<numeric> OR <numeric>

Associated Keywords

AND, EOR, NOT

OSCLI

This command allows a string expression to be passed to the operating system. It overcomes the problems caused by the exclusion of variables in the star (*) commands. Using this statement, you can, for instance, erase and rename files whose names you only know at run-time.
command$="DEL PHONE.DTA"
OSCLI command$

command$="REN ADDRESS.DTA=NAME.DTA"
OSCLI command$
If the command is not one of the resident commands, it is passed to COMMAND.COM for execution. (This will only work of there is a copy of COMMAND.COM available to BBCBASIC(86) and there is sufficient RAM.) If the command is not one of the MS-DOS resident commands, the appropriate .EXE or .COM file will be loaded and executed.

Unlike the resident commands, commands passed to COMMAND.COM do NOT assume an extension of .BBC if the extension is omitted.

See the Operating System Interface section for more details.

Syntax

OSCLI <str>

Associated Keywords

All operating system (*) commands.

PAGE

PA.

A pseudo-variable controlling the starting address of the current user program area. It addresses the area where a program is (or will be) stored.
PAGE=&3100
PRINT ~PAGE
PAGE=TOP+&100: REM Move to start of next page.
PAGE is automatically initialised by BBCBASIC(86) to the address of the lowest available page in RAM (&900), but you may change it.

If you make PAGE less than its original value or greater than the original value of HIMEM, you will get a 'Bad program' error when you try to enter a program line and you may well crash BBCBASIC(86).

If you make PAGE greater than HIMEM, a 'No room' error will occur if the program exits to command level.

With care, several programs can be left around in RAM without the need for saving them.

USE WITH CARE.

Syntax

PAGE=<numeric>
<n-var>=PAGE

Associated Keywords

TOP, LOMEM, HIMEM

PI

A function returning 3.14159265.
X=PI
You can use PI to calculate the circumference and area of a circle. The example below calculates the circumference and area of a circle of a given radius.
10 CLS
20 INPUT "What is the radius of the circle ",rad
30 PRINT "The circumference is: ";2*PI*rad
40 PRINT "The area is: ";PI*rad*rad
50 END
PI can also be used to convert degrees to radians and radians to degrees.
radians=PI/180*degrees
degrees=180/PI*radians
However, BBCBASIC(86) has two functions (RAD and DEG) which perform these conversions to a higher accuracy.

Syntax

<n-var>=PI

Associated Keywords

RAD, DEG

PLOT

PL.

PLOT is a multi-purpose drawing statement. Three numbers follow the PLOT statement: the first specifies the type of point, line, triangle or circle to be drawn; the second and third give the X and Y coordinates to be used.
PLOT Mode,X,Y
Lines are drawn from the current graphics cursor position (the last point 'visited') to the specified X,Y coordinates. The graphics origin is usually the bottom left-hand corner of the screen, but it can be changed using the VDU 29 statement.

The two most commonly used statements, PLOT 4 and PLOT 5, have the duplicate keywords MOVE and DRAW.

The available PLOT modes are listed on the following pages. Examples of the more complicated PLOT modes are given in the Graphics and Colours section.

Basic Modes

 Mode Action
0 Move relative to the last point.
1 Draw a line, in the current graphics foreground colour, relative to the last point.
2 Draw a line, in the logical inverse colour, relative to the last point.
3 Draw a line, in the background colour, relative to the last point.
4 Move to the absolute position X, Y.
5 Draw a line, in the current foreground colour, to the absolute coordinates specified by X and Y.
6 Draw a line, in the logical inverse colour, to the absolute coordinates specified by X and Y.
7 Draw a line, in the current background colour, to the absolute coordinates specified by X and Y.

Enhanced Modes

Modes 8 to 71

 Mode Action
8-15 As 0-7, except that the last point is plotted twice.
16-31 As 0-15, but the line is drawn dotted.
32-47 As 0-15, but the line is drawn dashed.
48-63 As 0-15, but the line is drawn broken.
64-71 As 0-7, but only a single point is plotted.

Horizontal Line Fill to Non-background

Modes 72 to 79

The graphics cursor first moves to the specified coordinate (relative or absolute). Next it moves left until the first non-background pixel is encountered. Then it moves right until the first non-background pixel is encountered. Finally, a line is drawn between these two points

If the PLOT number is 73 or 77, the line is drawn in the current foreground colour. If the PLOT number is 72 or 76, the cursor movements are made, but no line is drawn.

Triangle Plot and Fill

Modes 80 to 87

As 0-7, but plot and fill a triangle. The triangle is formed from the given X,Y coordinates and the previous two points 'visited', however they were specified.

If the PLOT number is 81 or 85, the triangle is drawn and filled in the current foreground colour.

Horizontal Line Fill to Background Right

Modes 88 to 95

The graphics cursor moves to the specified coordinate. It then moves to the right until the first background coloured pixel is encountered. Finally, a line is drawn between these two points.

If the PLOT number is 91 or 95, the line will be drawn in the current background colour. If the PLOT number is 88 or 92, the cursor movements are made, but no line is drawn.

Rectangle Plot and Fill

Modes 96 to 103

Plot and fill an axis-aligned rectangle. The opposite corners are at the point plotted and the point last 'visited', however it was specified.

If the PLOT number is 97 or 101, the rectangle will be drawn and filled in the current foreground colour.

Horizontal Line Fill to Foreground

Modes 104 to 111

The graphics cursor moves to the specified coordinate. It then moves to the right until the first foreground coloured pixel is encountered. It then moves left until the first foreground coloured pixel is encountered. Finally, a line is drawn between these last two points.

If the PLOT number is 107 or 111, the line will be drawn in the current background colour. If the PLOT number is 104 or 108, the cursor movements are made, but no line is drawn.

Parallelogram Plot and Fill

Modes 112 to 119

Plot and fill a parallelogram whose vertices are defined by the previous two points visited and the point specified. For reference purposes, call the previous two points visited point1 and point2 in order, and the point specified in the PLOT command, point3. The x and y coordinates of the fourth point are calculated by:
point3-point2+point1
The order in which the points are visited is important.

If the PLOT number is 113 or 117, the parallelogram will be drawn and filled in the current foreground colour.

Horizontal Line Fill to Non-foreground Right

Modes 120 to 127

The graphics cursor moves to the specified coordinate. It then moves to the right until the first non-foreground coloured pixel is encountered. Finally, a line is drawn between these two points.

If the PLOT number is 123 or 127, the line will be drawn in the current background colour. If the PLOT number is 120 or 124, the cursor movements are made, but no line is drawn.

Flood Fill to Non-background

Modes 128 to 135

Flood fill starting at the given point and continuing until non-background pixels are found. This may fail with a 'No room' error if the area to fill is too complex or the colour being used to fill can itself be filled.

Flood Fill to Foreground

Modes 136 to 143

Flood fill starting at the given point and continuing until foreground pixels are found. This may fail with a 'No room' error if the area to fill is too complex or the colour being used to fill can itself be filled.

Draw Circle

Modes 144-151

Draw a circle on the screen with the origin at the current graphics cursor position. A point on the circumference or the radius of the circle may be specified.

Point on Circumference

If the 'absolute' plot codes (148 to 151) are used the point specified will be on the circumference of the circle. For example,
MOVE x1,y1
PLOT 149,x2,y2
will draw a circle centred on x1,y1 with the point x2,y2 in its circumference.

Radius

If the 'relative' plot codes (144 to 147) are used either of the parameters may be used to specify the radius. For example, either
MOVE x,y
PLOT 145,R,0
or
MOVE x,y
PLOT 145,0,R
will draw a circle of radius R centred about the point x,y.

The shape is drawn 'circular' in terms of graphics units. As previously explained, the shape will be elliptical in modes 15 and 16. The adjustment of the monitor (height, width and linearity) will also affect the shape displayed.

Draw Solid Disc

Modes 152-159

Draw a disc on the screen with its origin at the current graphics cursor position. A point on the circumference or the radius of the disc may be specified in a similar manner to a circle.

If plot codes 156 to 159 are used, the point specified will be on the circumference of the disc. If plot codes 152 to 155 are used, the non-zero parameter is interpreted as the radius of the disc.

Draw Relative

The 'draw relative' commands act relative to the last point plotted. Suppose, for example, the current X and Y coordinates were 200, 300. The command
PLOT 1,0,150
would draw a line in the current graphics foreground colour from 200, 300 to 200,450.

Logical Inverse Colour

Two Colour Modes

 Logical  Inverse 
01
10

Four Colour Modes

 Logical  Inverse 
03
12
21
30

Sixteen Colour Modes

 Logical  Inverse 
015
114
213
312
411
510
69
78
87
96
105
114
123
132
141
150

Syntax

PLOT <numeric>,<numeric>,<numeric>

Associated Keywords

MODE, CLG, MOVE, DRAW, POINT, VDU, GCOL

POINT

A function which returns a number giving the logical colour of the screen at the coordinates specified. If the point is outside the graphics window, then -1 is returned.

There must not be a space between POINT and the opening bracket.

colour=POINT(X,Y)
IF POINT(X,Y)=3 THEN 300
You can use POINT to find out the colour of the screen at the specified point and take action accordingly. In an adventure game, for example, the swamps may be marked in green. If the explorer ventured into a green area he must be in the swamp and 'swamp type demons' would be activated.

Syntax

<n-var>=POINT(<numeric>,<numeric>)

Associated Keywords

PLOT, DRAW, MOVE, GCOL

POS

A function returning the horizontal position of the cursor on the screen. The left hand column is 0 and the right hand column is one less than the width of the display.
X=POS
COUNT will tell you the print head position of the printer. It is an uncertain indicator of the horizontal position of the cursor on the screen. (See the keyword COUNT for details.)

See VPOS for an example of the use of POS and VPOS.

Syntax

<n-var>=POS

Associated Keywords

COUNT, TAB, VPOS

PRINT

P.

A statement which prints characters on the VDU screen or printer (see *OPT). The printer may be turned on and off manually by typing ^P. All the characters displayed on the VDU screen after the first ^P will be echoed to the printer. A second ^P will turn the printer off. VDU 2 will also turn the printer on and VDU 3 will turn it off (see the VDU Emulation section for details).

You can cause the screen to be printed by pressing <Shift>/<Print Screen>. If you wish to print a graphics screen, you will need to have run the 'GRAPHICS' command from MS-DOS (see your MS DOS (PC DOS) reference manual for details). Not all versions of GRAPHICS support the EGA and VGA. Note that the foregoing does not apply to Microsoft WindowsTM; see your Windows documentation for the action of the Print Screen key.

General Information

The items following PRINT are called the print list. The print list may contain a sequence of string or numeric literals or variables. The spacing between the items printed will vary depending on the punctuation used. If the print list does not end with a semi-colon, a new-line will be printed after all the items in the print list.

In the examples which follow, commas have been printed instead of spaces to help you count.

The screen is divided into zones (initially) 10 characters wide. By default, numeric quantities are printed right justified in the print zone and strings are printed just as they are (with no leading spaces). Numeric quantities can be printed left justified by preceding them with a semi-colon. In the examples the zone width is indicated as z10, z4 etc.

                    z10
                    012345678901234567890123456789
PRINT 23.162        ,,,,23.162
PRINT "HELLO"       HELLO
PRINT ;23.162       23.162
Initially numeric items are printed in decimal. If a tilde (~) is encountered in the print list, the numeric items which follow it are printed in hexadecimal. If a comma or a semi-colon is encountered further down the print list, the format reverts to decimal.
                    z10
                    012345678901234567890123456789
PRINT ~10 58,58     ,,,,,,,,,A,,,,,,,,3A,,,,,,,,58
A comma (,) causes the cursor to TAB to the beginning of the next print zone unless the cursor is already at the start of a print zone. A semi-colon causes the next and following items to be printed on the same line immediately after the previous item. This 'no-gap' printing continues until a comma (or the end of the print list) is encountered. An apostrophe (') will force a new line. TAB(X) and TAB(Y,Z) can also be used at any position in the print line to position the cursor.
                    z10
                    012345678901234567890123456789
PRINT "HELLO",24.2  HELLO     ,,,,,,24.2
PRINT "HELLO";24.2  HELLO24.2
PRINT ;2 5 4.3,2    254.3     ,,,,,,,,,2
PRINT "HELLO"'2.45  HELLO
                    ,,,,,,2.45
Unlike most other versions of BASIC, a comma at the end of the print list will not suppress the new line and advance the cursor to the next zone. If you wish to split a line over two or more PRINT statements, end the previous print list with a semicolon and start the following list with a comma or end the line with a comma followed by a semicolon.
                    z10
                    012345678901234567890123456789
PRINT "HELLO" 12;   HELLO,,,,,,,,12,,,,,,,,,,23.67
PRINT ,23.67
or
PRINT "HELLO" 12,;
PRINT 23.67
Printing a string followed by a numeric effectively moves the start of the print zones towards the right by the length of the string. This displacement continues until a comma is encountered.
                    z10
                    012345678901234567890123456789
PRINT "HELLO"12 34  HELLO,,,,,,,,12,,,,,,,,34
PRINT "HELLO"12,34  HELLO,,,,,,,,12     ,,,,,,,,34

Print Format Control

Although PRINT USING is not implemented in BBCBASIC, similar control over the print format can be obtained. The overall width of the print zones and print field, the number of figures or decimal places and the print format may be controlled by setting the print variable, @%, to the appropriate value. The print variable (@%) comprises 4 bytes and each byte controls one aspect of the print format. @% can be set equal to a decimal integer, but it is easier to use hexadecimal, since each byte can then be considered separately.
@%=&SSNNPPWW
Byte  Range   Default  Purpose
SS00-0100STR$ Format Control
NN00-0200Format Selection
PP??-??09Number of Digits Printed
WW00-0F0A(10)Zone and Print Field Width

STR$ Format Control - SS

Byte 3 effects the format of the string generated by the STR$ function. If Byte 3 is 1 the string will be generated according to the format set by @%, otherwise the G9 format will be used.

Format Selection - NN

Byte 2 selects the general format as follows:
00  General Format (G).
01  Exponential Format (E).
02  Fixed Format (F).
G Format Numbers that are integers are printed as such. Numbers in the range 0.1 to 1 will be printed as such. Numbers less than 0.1 will be printed in E format. Numbers greater than the range set by Byte 1 will be printed in E format. In which case, the number of digits printed will still be controlled by Byte 1, but according to the E format rules.
The earlier examples were all printed in G9 format.
E Format Numbers are printed in the scientific (engineering) notation.
F Format Numbers are printed with a fixed number of decimal places.

Number of Digits - PP

Byte 1 controls the number of digits printed in the selected format. The number is rounded (NOT truncated) to this size before it is printed. If Byte 1 is set outside the range allowed for by the selected format, it is taken as 9. The effect of Byte 1 differs slightly with the various formats.

 Format   Range   Control Function
G 01-0A The maximum number of digits which can be printed, excluding the decimal point, before changing to the E format.
                    01234567890123456789
&030A - G3z10
(00'00'03'0A)
PRINT 1000.31       ,,,,,,,1E3
PRINT 1016.31       ,,,,1.02E3
PRINT 10.56         ,,,,,,10.6
E 01-FF The total number of digits to be printed excluding the decimal point and the digits after the E. Three characters or spaces are always printed after the E. If the number of significant figures called for is greater than 10, then trailing zeros will be printed.
01030A - E3z10
(00'01'03'0A)
                    01234567890123456789
PRINT 10.56         ,,1.06E1

&010F0A - E15z10
(00'01'0F'0A)
                    01234567890123456789
PRINT 10.56         1.05600000000000E1
F 00-0A The number of digits to be printed after the decimal point.
&02020A - F2z10
(00'02'02'0A)
                    01234567890123456789
PRINT 10.56         ,,,,,10.56
PRINT 100.5864      ,,,,100.59
PRINT .64862        ,,,,,,0.65

Zone Width - WW

Byte 0 sets the width of the print zones and field.
&020208 - F2z8
(00'00'02'08)
followed by
&020206 - F2z6
(00'02'02'06)
                    01234567890123456789
PRINT 10.2,3.8      ,,,10.20,,,,3.80
PRINT 10.2,3.8      ,10.20,,3.80

Changing the Print Control Variable

It is possible to change the print control variable (@%) within a print list by using the function:
DEF FN_pformat(N):@%=N:=""
Functions have to return an answer, but the value returned by this function is a null string. Consequently, its only effect is to change the print control variable. Thus the PRINT statement
PRINT FN_pformat(&90A) x FN_pformat(&2020A) y
will print x in G9z10 format and y in F2z10 format.

Examples

G9z10                    G2z10
&00090A                  &00020A
012345678901234          012345678901234
1111.11111               ,,,,,1.1E3
13.7174211               ,,,,,,,,14
,1.5241579               ,,,,,,,1.5
1.88167642E-2            ,,,,1.9E-2
2.09975158E-3            ,,,,2.1E-3

F2z10                    E2z10
&02020A                  &0102A
012345678901234          012345678901234
,,,1111.11               ,,,1.1E3
,,,,,13.72               ,,,1.4E1
,,,,,,1.52               ,,,1.5E0
,,,,,,0.02               ,,,1.9E-2
,,,,,,0.00               ,,,2.1E-3
The results obtained by running the following example program show the effect of changing the zone width. The results for zone widths of 5 and 10 (&0A) illustrate what happens when the zone width is too small for the number to be printed properly. The example also illustrates what happens when the number is too large for the chosen precision.
 10 test=7.8123
 20 FOR i=5 TO 25 STEP 5
 30   PRINT
 40   @%=&020200+i
 50   PRINT "@%=&000";~@%
 60   PRINT STRING$(3,"0123456789")
 70   FOR j=1 TO 10
 80     PRINT test^j
 90   NEXT
100   PRINT '
110 NEXT
120 @%=&90A

&00020205
012345678901234567890123456789
 7.81
61.03
476.80
3724.91
29100.11
227338.75
1776038.54
13874945.89
1.083952398E8
8.46816132E8

&0002020A
012345678901234567890123456789
      7.81
     61.03
    476.80
   3724.91
  29100.11
 227338.75
1776038.54
13874945.89
1.083952398E8
8.46816132E8

&0002020F
012345678901234567890123456789
           7.81
          61.03
         476.80
        3724.91
       29100.11
      227338.75
     1776038.54
    13874945.89
   1.083952398E8
    8.46816132E8

&00020214
012345678901234567890123456789
                7.81
               61.03
              476.80
             3724.91
            29100.11
           227338.75
          1776038.54
         13874945.89
       1.083952398E8
        8.46816132E8

&00020219
012345678901234567890123456789
                     7.81
                    61.03
                   476.80
                  3724.91
                 29100.11
                227338.75
               1776038.54
              13874945.89
            1.083952398E8
             8.46816132E8

Syntax

PRINT {[TAB(<numeric>[,<numeric>])][SPC(<numeric>]
      ['][,][;][~][<str>|<numeric>]}

Associated Keywords

PRINT#, TAB, POS, STR$, WIDTH, INPUT, VDU

Left CONTENTS

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© Doug Mounter and Richard Russell